One may think that the overlap between people from or who worked in Armenia (a landlocked country with a proud, complex, and at times tragic history) and the Distant Water Fishing Nations (DWFN) would be nonexistent.
Yet that is not the case: This paper by Dr Gohar Petrossian, Associate Professor at John Jay College (CUNY), Executive Officer (CRJ Doctoral Program- CUNY Graduate Centre, and two colleagues (Chi-Heng Tsai and MoSiao Fang), which acknowledges my involvement, proves the overlap.
I spent most of 2003 and 2004 working in Armenia on an EU-paid assignment. Almost one-third of the country is covered by Lake Sevan, home to a freshwater crayfish fishery—the narrow-clawed crayfish (Astacus leptodactylus)—which was introduced in the 1980s from the Baltic countries. With no predators, it has become a significant part of the lake's ecosystem. With Armenia's independence in the early 1990s and the decline of the narrow-clawed crayfish fishery in the Baltic and Scandinavia, the EU market began to become an attractive option for local fishing entrepreneurs. To access it, countries need to have a sanitary authorisation (see a booklet I wrote with an explanation here), as well as a fisheries management plan. And thankfully for me, there are not many people in the world who can do both at once… So yeah, there I went (and loved it), and I guess I must have done an ok job because Armenia is still exporting to the EU.
A flow map of hiring and labour supplying countries by modularity class
Anyway, anecdotes aside, when Gohar reached out with the idea of the paper, I was more than happy to help, if I could.
Her team's research questions for this paper are really solid:
Which countries’ DWF vessels dominate operations on the high seas and within other countries’ EEZs?
What is the social network structure between hiring and labour supply countries in the foreign labour market of this industry?
Which countries predominantly hire foreign labour, and which countries provide the majority of this labour force in this industry?
What distinct "communities" of actors (countries) emerge within the hiring-hired labour network? How significant are these communities in terms of network weight, and what does this signify?
And the exploratory research does a good job of diving deep into them. As usual, I recommend that you read the original in the Marine Policy Netting the global workforce: Unraveling the networks of laborers on distant water fishing fleets
I would do a disservice by posting a summary, as there is not much with which I disagree.
The paper examines the global employment networks within the distant water fishing (DWF) industry, with a focus on issues of forced labour and worker exploitation among labour-supplying countries.
Distant Water Fishing Industry Overview
The distant water fishing (DWF) industry is crucial for global seafood production and economic development, but faces significant issues related to forced labour and worker exploitation. This study examines the global employment networks within the DWF industry, focusing on the relationships between hiring and labour-supplying countries.
Global Employment Networks in DWF
The study identifies a concentrated distribution of DWF vessel ownership among a few countries, revealing the dynamics of labour sourcing.
138 countries operate DWF fleets, with ownership concentrated in 23 countries.
China (44%), Taiwan (11%), Japan (5%), and the U.S. (3%) account for over 60% of global DWF vessels.
The Gini coefficient of 0.89 indicates extreme inequality in DWF vessel operations.
Labour Supply and Demand Dynamics
The research highlights the complex relationships between hiring countries and labour-supplying nations in the DWF industry.
Top hiring countries include Taiwan, Italy, Spain, France, and China.
Major labour-supplying countries are Indonesia, the Philippines, Madagascar, and Kiribati (Yet personally I have seen more Vietnamese crew than i-Kiribati in fishing vessels, yet on the cargo vessels, the reality is different).
52 labour-supplying countries are identified, indicating a diverse labour market.
Social Network Analysis Methodology
Interestingly, social network analysis (SNA) is employed to visualise and understand the relationships between hiring and labour-supplying countries. (I used it for transhipping vessels here, and it is incredible what you can do!)
Directed network diagrams are created to represent hiring relationships.
In-degree and out-degree centrality scores are calculated to identify key countries in the network.
The average degree of the network is 2.125, with a density of 0.034.
Community Structures in DWF Networks
Modularity analysis reveals distinct communities within the global DWF labour market, indicating regional hiring patterns.
Four communities were identified: Purple (35.94%), Orange (23.44%), Blue (17.19%), and Green (15.62%). (The image at the top of the blog reflects this.)
The Purple community includes East Asian countries hiring from Southeast Asia.
The Orange community consists of European countries hiring from Africa, while the Blue community shows Italy hiring from various regions.
Urgent Need for Interventions
The findings underscore the necessity for targeted interventions to combat forced labour in the DWF industry.
Recommendations include stricter labour regulations and ethical recruitment practices in hiring countries.
Pre-departure training and enhanced protections for workers in labour-supplying nations are essential.
Improved international cooperation is needed to enhance transparency and accountability in labour practices.
Global Distant Water Fishing Industry Overview
This research investigates the networks of countries involved in the global Distant Water Fishing (DWF) industry, focusing on the primary hiring and labour-supplying nations. It highlights the complexities and vulnerabilities within these networks, particularly regarding labour exploitation.
Concentration of DWF Vessels and Labor Supply
As of 2018, 12,608 DWF vessels were registered across 138 countries.
The top 23 countries accounted for 90.43% of these vessels, indicating a highly concentrated distribution.
Eighteen countries dominate the hiring of foreign labour, sourcing workers from 52 labour-supplying nations.
Developed countries, such as Taiwan, Italy, Spain, France, and China, are the primary hiring nations, while economically vulnerable countries, including Indonesia, the Philippines, and Madagascar, supply labour.
Labour Exploitation and Vulnerabilities
The globalisation of labour in the DWF industry creates vulnerabilities, which can lead to potential instances of forced labour and exploitation.
Asymmetrical power relations between hiring and labour-supplying countries contribute to structural vulnerabilities.
Historical cases of forced labour on DWF vessels illustrate the risks faced by migrant workers.
The concept of racial capitalism highlights the exploitation of marginalised racial groups within labour markets.
Community Analysis of Hiring and Labour-Supplying Countries
Modularity analysis identified five distinct communities in the DWF industry.
The largest community consists of East Asian hiring countries sourcing labour from Southeast Asia.
Other communities include Western European countries hiring from African nations, reflecting historical and economic ties.
Taiwan and China have shifted labour sourcing patterns due to domestic economic changes, leading to increased reliance on Southeast Asian migrants.
Study Limitations and Data Challenges
The study faced challenges due to the classification of countries as Flags of Convenience (FOCs), affecting the accuracy of network analyses.
Some hiring countries did not provide information on foreign labour practices, potentially underestimating the global DWF labour network.
Reliance on publicly available secondary data may not capture informal employment practices, leading to potential biases.
The research team employed triangulation of data sources to enhance the reliability and robustness of the findings.
Policy Recommendations for Crew Hiring Countries
Stricter regulatory frameworks are needed to monitor labour recruitment practices in hiring countries.
Compliance with international labour standards, such as the ILO’s Work in Fishing Convention (C188), is essential.
The adoption of emerging technologies, such as satellite data and EM, can enhance enforcement and transparency regarding working conditions.
Cooperation with labour-supplying countries is crucial for establishing ethical recruitment channels and enhancing transparency.
Policy Recommendations for Labour-Supplying Countries
Labour-supplying countries should develop comprehensive policies to protect their migrant workers abroad.
Pre-departure training programs should educate fishers about working conditions and their rights.
Strengthening bilateral agreements with hiring countries can ensure better labour protections and compliance with international standards.
Monitoring recruitment agencies is vital to prevent deceptive practices and protect workers from exploitation.
The International Community's Role in Fisher's Labour Rights
Coordinated, region-specific interventions are necessary to enhance the rights of foreign fishers.
Establishing a unified baseline for labour standards within communities can facilitate consistent compliance.
Multilateral cooperation between hiring and labour-supplying nations is essential for fair recruitment practices.
International institutions should provide support to labour-supplying countries to enhance their capacity to protect workers.
Importance of Ongoing Research and Data Transparency
Continuous research is vital to understanding the evolving dynamics of foreign fishers’ patterns in the DWF industry.
A global database tracking fishers’ labour practices can enhance transparency and worker safety.
Future studies should focus on identifying risk factors for labour exploitation and vulnerabilities in labour-supplying countries.
And it would be hard to disagree with the conclusions at all, by anyone!
“The importance and urgency of studies like this cannot be overstated, as they provide critical insights to support evidence-based policymaking for hiring and labour-supplying countries. This research represents the first global analysis of employment networks within the DWF industry, offering a foundational exploratory perspective. While this study sheds light on the complexities of the industry’s employment networks, it is important to recognise that the DWF sector is highly dynamic, with foreign labour patterns continuously evolving in response to national hiring policies and global economic circumstances. Therefore, it is crucial to continually update relevant data to accurately reflect the employment networks within the DWF industry. One such way would be the creation and maintenance of a global database that keeps track of these practices and creates the level of transparency needed for ensuring the safety of the workers at sea. Future research can focus on identifying the risk factors within these networks that predispose certain hiring countries to exploit foreign workers, as well as the vulnerabilities that make specific labour-supplying countries more susceptible to such abuses. Deepening our understanding of the intersection of transnational employment networks and labour rights, as well as fisheries governance practices, is essential for developing actionable policies that will aim to reduce the likelihood of potential illegal labour practices in the DWF industry”